courant.com: The `Canaries' Under The Sound

From: Subject: courant.com: The `Canaries' Under The Sound Date: Sun, 22 Apr 2007 08:51:23 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C784BB.67C84F40" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.3028 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C784BB.67C84F40 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.courant.com/news/local/hc-warmwater0422.artapr22,0,7186346,print.story?coll=hc-big-headlines-breaking courant.com: The `Canaries' Under The Sound

http://www.cour= ant.com/news/local/hc-warmwater0422.artapr22,0,4109415.story?page=3D2&= ;coll=3Dhc-big-headlines-breaking=20

The `Canaries' Under The Sound =

Microscopic shells shed by single-celled = creatures=20 lie deep within the estuary's sediment, and researchers believe = they have=20 a lot to tell us about climate change. =

By=20 DAVID FUNKHOUSER
Courant Staff Writer

April 22=20 2007

MIDDLETOWN -- Long Island Sound generates more than $5 = billion=20 a year for the regional economy and defines Connecticut as surely = as the=20 Charter Oak. It holds some 18 trillion gallons of water and is one = of the=20 nation's largest and most significant estuaries.

But if you = want to=20 understand how global warming is changing the Sound, start=20 small.

On a recent morning, Wesleyan University sophomore = Emily=20 Avener was working in a narrow laboratory on the fourth floor of = the Exley=20 Science Center. She tapped the grainy contents of a vial onto a = tiny black=20 tray. Setting the tray under a microscope, she stepped aside and = offered a=20 visitor a look.

Through the lens, amid the debris, you = could see=20 intricate seashells - minuscule versions of the shells you might = have=20 picked up on a beach on a summer stroll. These are foraminifera - = or=20 rather, the tiny homes left behind by these single-celled=20 creatures.

Avener spends several hours a week as a research = assistant counting forams, as they are informally called. The = layman needs=20 a microscope just to distinguish them from grains of sand. They = live at=20 the bottom of the food chain; but the stories they can tell us = about the=20 past - and the future - challenge the mind.

Forams = typically=20 measure a millimeter or less in diameter, though the largest on = record is=20 more than half a foot. They are the principal ingredient in the = limestone=20 pyramids of Egypt.

These microscopic creatures have been = around for=20 550 million years. Because of their abundance in ancient sediments = and=20 their sensitivity to different environments, oil companies hire=20 paleontologists to examine forams in rock samples to help them = decide=20 where to drill. For similar reasons, forams also are useful = indicators of=20 past climate change.

And they can tell us something about = changes=20 to come.

Forams and other marine organisms build their = shells out=20 of calcium carbonate, using some of the carbon dioxide that the = oceans=20 absorb from the atmosphere.

The buildup of CO{-2} in the = atmosphere=20 is considered a major cause of modern global warming.

But = not all=20 of that CO{-2} stays in the atmosphere: The oceans have absorbed = about=20 half of what we have produced by burning fossil fuels and other = activities=20 over the past 200 years, according to a June 2005 report from the = Royal=20 Society, Britain's national academy of science.

The oceans = are=20 slightly alkaline, but the added CO{-2} is lowering the water's pH = toward=20 the acidic end of that scale. That could eventually make it = difficult for=20 organisms to build their shells, affecting the marine food chain = and=20 further disrupting the global carbon = cycle.

Paleo-oceanographer=20 Ellen Thomas calls forams "the canary in the coal = mine."

Thomas,=20 who works at Yale and Wesleyan and supervises Avener, specializes = in=20 forams. She and her husband, Wesleyan professor and geologist = Johan "Joop"=20 Varekamp, sift through the remains of forams in Long Island Sound=20 sediments that date back 2,000 years or more.

Their work = helps us=20 understand how ocean life responds to climate changes of the past, = and=20 perhaps how it will respond to the climate change = ahead.

Scientists=20 are cautious about pinning specific events - a severe hurricane or = a=20 disappearing species - to global warming. Weather is fickle, and = the=20 climate variable over the decades; we know there have been ice = ages and=20 warming periods in the past.

But we do know the Earth is = warming,=20 and the oceans with it, and that will have an impact in Long = Island=20 Sound.

Changes In The Sound

We have already = seen=20 troubling changes in the water.

The lobster population has = crashed.=20 Before 1999, the commercial harvest for Connecticut and New York = was 7=20 million to 11.7 million pounds per year. In 1999, there was a = major=20 lobster die-off. By 2004, the harvest had sunk to 1.6 million=20 pounds.

Although a federal study found that a parasite was = the=20 primary direct cause, warmer water "was the driving force" behind = the=20 die-offs, according to a report from the Connecticut Sea Grant and = the=20 state's Department of Environmental Protection. The Sound's = lobsters live=20 at the southern edge of their range for shallow water habitat; any = sustained increase in temperature puts them under = stress.

Diseases=20 have devastated the oyster crop - worth $45 million as recently as = 1992.=20 Two warmer-water parasites, commonly known as dermo and MSX, have = been=20 moving north for decades. They hit the Sound hard in 1997-98, and = in 2005,=20 the value of the harvest had shrunk to just over = $950,000.

Cold=20 water fish are leaving the Sound, and warm water species are = moving in,=20 according to 20 years of fish counts by the DEP. Recreational = fishermen=20 once landed more than a million winter flounder a year; that = declined to=20 fewer than 5,000 fish in 2004.

"The Sound is an ecological=20 transition zone," said David Conover of Stony Brook University's = Marine=20 Sciences Center. "It is the southernmost zone for some species and = the=20 northernmost zone for others."

Nonnative species are = invading the=20 Sound - from grasses and algae to sea squirts and crabs, often = brought=20 here inadvertently in bilge water or attached to ship hulls. They = can kill=20 or displace native species and foul lobster traps and shellfish=20 cultivation gear.

Warmer water offers some species an = advantage in=20 their new habitat.

Along parts of the coastline, marshes = are dying=20 back. Researchers are just beginning to look at why. Sea level is = a=20 factor: Marshes have adapted to rising sea levels for a long time, = by=20 growing up, and inward. But the Sound is now rising about 3 = millimeters a=20 year, and that may be too fast for the marshes to = adjust.

"We're=20 seeing changes in the marshes, that's clear," said Professor Roman = Zajac=20 of the University of New Haven. "They're rapid and they're=20 striking."

Although the connection to global warming is = unclear, he=20 said, "There will be some consequences for the ecology of our = coastline if=20 the trend continues."

Every summer, hypoxia - a lack of = dissolved=20 oxygen that can choke off marine life - spreads like a growing = stain from=20 Throgs Neck in New York east to New Haven. The primary cause is = human=20 waste: effluent from sewage treatment plants, and runoff from = urban and=20 suburban development.

This could hardly come as a surprise = to=20 anyone living around here: 20 million people live within 50 miles = of the=20 Sound. The fresh water flowing from wastewater treatment plants = alone=20 roughly equals the flow of the Housatonic = River.

Temperature plays=20 a major role: Warmer surface water in summer tends to stratify, = forming a=20 layer that prevents oxygen from the atmosphere from mixing into = the cooler=20 bottom water.

Warmer Waters

From Avery Point = to Stony=20 Brook, researchers are examining the changes in temperature, = salinity,=20 oxygen and sea level, studying their impact and trying to = determine their=20 causes.

In some cases, the changes strongly correlate with = warming=20 trends. But in science, correlation is not the same as causation.=20 Scientists studying the Sound often point out that we cannot prove = these=20 changes are directly or exclusively linked to global = warming.

We do=20 know, however, that the Sound appears to be warming. This is = apparent from=20 looking at modern temperature studies and at historical records = and from=20 peering into the chemical secrets of those tiny = foraminifera.

Sea=20 surface temperatures off the Northeast coast have increased by 1 = degree=20 Fahrenheit over the past century, according to the 2006 report = Climate=20 Change in the Northeast, prepared by the Union of Concerned=20 Scientists.

Locally, the record is not uniform: = Temperatures in the=20 Sound seasonally range from near freezing to 75 degrees, and they = vary a=20 lot from year to year. In some locations, bottom waters have = actually=20 cooled. But data from the past 30 years suggest that, on average, = winter=20 water temperatures are higher. And small changes - in when waters = warm, or=20 how long they stay warm in summer - can have a big impact on = marine=20 life.

Climate models suggest that no matter what we do now, = the=20 world will keep getting warmer, sea levels will rise and oceans = will=20 continue to acidify.

In a report on New England climate = change, the=20 Union of Concerned Scientists projects that sea temperatures will = increase=20 from 5 degrees to 8 degrees by the end of the century.

The = most=20 recent report from the U.N.'s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate = Change=20 says sea levels are projected to rise 7 to 23 inches by 2100 - = possibly=20 much more if polar ice sheets melt more rapidly. The IPCC was = established=20 in 1988 to assess the science, impacts and risks associated with = climate=20 change.

The Royal Society concluded in its 2005 report that = if=20 global emissions of CO{-2} from human activities continue to rise, = ocean=20 pH could fall to a level "probably lower than has been experienced = for=20 hundreds of millenniums and, critically, this rate of change is = probably=20 one hundred times greater than at any time over this = period."

But=20 we can already see what changes are possible with even slight = shifts in=20 the chemistry and ecology of the Sound.

Secrets In The=20 Mud

Ellen Thomas unlocks the door to a small, = concrete-walled=20 storage room out by the loading dock at the Exley Science Center. = The room=20 feels like a refrigerator.

To the right stand various = lengths of=20 gray tubing a few inches thick, with black caps. Cryptic letters = and=20 numbers in black marker indicate when and where they came=20 from.

These are sediment cores: tubes of mud pulled up from = locations around the Sound.

When Thomas can round up the = grant=20 money for the $3,000-a-day fee, she sails out on the RV = Connecticut, the=20 University of Connecticut's research vessel at Avery Point, and = with=20 special machinery sinks 8-foot-long tubes into the sea floor. A = device=20 closes off the lower end, and up comes anywhere from 600 to 2,000 = years of=20 muck.

"It's hard to measure," she said, "but you can turn=20 centimeters into time."

With carbon-14 and other dating = methods,=20 and by examining the remains of the foraminifera and other = microscopic=20 creatures, Thomas converts the tubes of mud into a telescope into = the=20 past.

The gray tubes are chopped to a manageable size, then = taken=20 to a hospital, where they are X-rayed. This gives Thomas an idea = of how=20 intact the cores are - a burrowing lobster can wreak havoc on the=20 stratified layers of sediment.

The tubes are sliced in half = lengthwise. The result looks like a rain gutter filled with dense, = dark=20 gray mud.

These half-cores are stored on a metal shelf = across the=20 cold room. Thomas, who has a cheery disposition and delivers her = science=20 with something of a swagger, pulls a 5-foot-long half-core out of = its=20 white plastic container. Every 2 inches or so, semicircular slices = have=20 been removed for study and the spaces filled with black plastic=20 foam.

Mostly, Thomas is looking for forams. Of the = estimated 4,000=20 species of forams, just three or four are common in the Sound. = One,=20 Elphidium excavatum, known as Elphidium e., has been dominant for=20 thousands of years, she said - ever since melting ice sheets at = the end of=20 the last Ice Age raised ocean levels 300 feet, and the sea came = pouring=20 in, filling the basin that once was a freshwater lake and is now = the=20 Sound.

When Thomas and her student assistants studied = forams in the=20 mid-1990s, however, they found something unexpected: Tiny = Elphidium e. had=20 relinquished their throne to another foram: Ammonia beccarii, = known as=20 Ammonia b.

Why the change? And what does it = mean?

Thomas=20 looked at several factors and concluded that what had changed was = their=20 food.

Elphidium e. likes to eat even smaller, plant-like = organisms=20 called diatoms. The forams use pseudopods, filaments of protoplasm = that=20 stick out from their shells, to draw the diatoms into pits in = their shells=20 and crack them open.

But too much nitrogen - among the = nutrients=20 flowing into the Sound from runoff and sewage plants and a key = factor=20 behind summertime hypoxia - is proving fateful for = diatoms.

Diatoms=20 make their "little houses," as Thomas calls them, out of silica = dioxide.=20 "If you throw in more nitrogen, they're happy," Thomas said. "But = if the=20 nitrogen-over-silica ratio goes up too high, then diatoms can't = bloom,=20 they lose out to other organisms, and that takes away the food = source for=20 Elphidium."

Ammonia b., however, is more omnivorous: It = will eat=20 not just diatoms, but other, smaller phytoplankton such as = dinoflagellates=20 and cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae) that do not seem = to mind=20 the excess nitrogen.

"Diatoms are the base of the food = chain,"=20 Thomas said. "If the basic food material disappeared, replaced by=20 dinoflagellates, blue-green algae, you would predict a major = effect on=20 your ecosystem.

"Now, over the past few decades, moving = west to=20 east in Long Island Sound, the Ammonia b. is becoming dominant, = possibly=20 reflecting this change in food source, with the diatom-consuming = Elphidium=20 at a disadvantage.

"Such a change would reverberate higher = in the=20 food chain as well, and you would expect, for instance, to see = more=20 jellyfish, which eat smaller food particles, and fewer scallops = and=20 quahogs, starfish, barnacles, sea urchins."

Plenty of = animals -=20 finfish, marine mammals and birds, for instance - like to eat the = animals=20 that dine on diatoms. But for most, jellyfish just aren't on the=20 menu.

At the bottom of the food chain, where the = foraminifera grow,=20 a shift in microscopic species is making the water a better home = for=20 jellyfish than flounder.

Thomas said the takeover also = could be=20 more directly related to warming - Elphidium e. is found more in = colder=20 water, Ammonia b. more in warmer water.

A History In=20 Chemistry

Avener, 19, the student researcher, is a = government=20 major with more than a passing interest in marine biology. She = received a=20 fellowship from the Mellon Foundation to work with Thomas studying = foraminifera.

Thomas, whose work is funded by the = Connecticut Sea=20 Grant, the federal Environmental Protection Agency and the Long = Island=20 Sound Lobster Initiative, hopes to get enough additional funds to = go back=20 out and gather core samples that will take her even further back = in=20 time.

For now, Avener patiently sifts through the = mud.

In=20 the lab, she takes each semicircular slice of mud carved from a = core and=20 dries it in a small oven. The material comes out looking like = chunks of=20 light-brown chalk.

Avener washes the material with an = all-purpose=20 cleaner; the chunks quickly dissolve into a fine suspension. This = is=20 drained through a cone of filter paper until what remains looks = like a=20 small pile of sand.

The little pile is sifted through a = fine sieve=20 whose holes measure 2.5 thousandths of an inch, leaving behind = bits of=20 broken shells, fly ash and odd debris, and the shells of the = forams. Using=20 a microscope and a fine-tipped brush, vial by vial, she sorts, = counts and=20 records what she sees.

Thomas sends samples to the Woods = Hole=20 Oceanographic Institute on Cape Cod for radiocarbon dating. She=20 collaborates with others who examine diatom shells, = dinoflagellates and=20 pollen grains in the mud.

After grinding up the calcium = carbonate=20 shells of the forams, she and her husband, Varekamp, study the = chemistry -=20 isotopes of carbon and oxygen, bits of magnesium - to reveal the = source of=20 the carbon, and the water's salinity, oxygen content and=20 temperature.

"That's pretty powerful information," Varekamp = said.=20 "With that we can pretty much describe changes in water quality = over=20 hundreds or thousands of years."

Through the forams, they = can see=20 natural climate variations such as a warming period in the Middle = Ages and=20 the Little Ice Age that followed it.

They also can see the = effect=20 of global warming in the past 150 years - coinciding with a = decrease in=20 salinity and a decline in oxygen in the Sound, all tied to human=20 activity.

Our effect on this 1,320-square-mile estuary,=20 accumulating for 200 years, is more complex than just a matter of = warming=20 temperatures. The carbon we have consumed; the garbage, sewage and = toxic=20 waste we have tossed aside; and the cities, parking lots, malls = and=20 subdivisions we have built all have left a heavy=20 footprint.

Connecticut, New York and the federal government = have=20 spent hundreds of millions of dollars cleaning up the Sound over = the past=20 20 years - not to mention the time and effort of thousands of = volunteers=20 and environmental organizations with the same goals.

That = effort=20 has substantially cut the level of untreated sewage and toxic = discharges=20 and jump-started programs to study the Sound's ecology, educate = the public=20 and preserve habitats all around the 600 miles of=20 coastline.

Meanwhile, political battles rage. Connecticut = is=20 arguing now over how much money to spend retrofitting sewage = treatment=20 plants to reduce nitrogen output and to upgrade storm water runoff = systems=20 to prevent fertilizers, pesticides and other toxic waste from = adding to=20 the problem.

Now we can add to that what will surely be = difficult=20 debates over how we might get global warming under=20 control.

"Climate change is one of the great communications = challenges we face," DEP Commissioner Gina McCarthy told a = conference on=20 Long Island Sound last year. "Science works on probabilities and=20 statistics. Well, we don't; we want answers."

She joked = that in=20 Washington, "they're still debating evolution," and then said: "We = can't=20 point to one event, one storm or disaster, and say that was = because of=20 global warming. But no other theory connects all those things that = are=20 happening. ...

"We need to get past that point and on to = what we do=20 about it."

Contact David K. Funkhouser at = dfunkhouser@courant.com.=20

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DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = #920000; PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #ffffff; PADDING-TOP: 2px; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .marketplace { BACKGROUND: #ffffff } .marketplace A { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/arrow_red.gif) no-repeat left 50%; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #990000; PADDING-TOP: 2px; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .marketplace A:hover { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/arrow_red.gif) no-repeat left 50%; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #990000; PADDING-TOP: 2px; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .leftt2 { BACKGROUND: #ffffff } .leftt2 A { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/pixelclr.gif) no-repeat left 50%; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; = COLOR: #0b1a4e; PADDING-TOP: 2px; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .leftt2 A:hover { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/pixelclr.gif) no-repeat left 50%; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; COLOR: #903; PADDING-TOP: 2px } .leftt2on { BACKGROUND: #fffeef } .leftt2on A { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/pixelclr.gif) no-repeat left 50%; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; = COLOR: #920000; PADDING-TOP: 2px; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .leftt3 { BACKGROUND: #ffffff } .leftt3 A { PADDING-RIGHT: 3px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 22px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/bullet_blue.gif) no-repeat left 50%; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; = COLOR: #0b1a4e; PADDING-TOP: 2px; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .leftt3 A:hover { PADDING-RIGHT: 3px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 22px; BACKGROUND: = url(./images/standard/hc/bullet_red.gif) no-repeat left 50%; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; = COLOR: #920000; PADDING-TOP: 2px; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .leftt3on { BACKGROUND: #fffeef } .leftt3on A { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/pixelclr.gif) no-repeat left 50%; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; = COLOR: #920000; PADDING-TOP: 2px; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .leftservices { BACKGROUND: #1d2959 } .leftservices A { PADDING-RIGHT: 3px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; BACKGROUND: = #1d2959; PADDING-BOTTOM: 3px; FONT: 600 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #ffffff; PADDING-TOP: 3px; BORDER-BOTTOM: #ffffff 1px = solid; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .leftservices A:hover { PADDING-RIGHT: 3px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; BACKGROUND: = #636b8c; PADDING-BOTTOM: 3px; COLOR: #ffffff; PADDING-TOP: 3px; = BORDER-BOTTOM: #ffffff 1px solid } .leftservicest2 { BACKGROUND: #e0e0ea } .leftservicest2 A { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = #e0e0ea; PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #1d2959; PADDING-TOP: 2px; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; = TEXT-DECORATION: none } .leftservicest2 A:hover { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = #ffffff; PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; COLOR: #990000; PADDING-TOP: 2px; = BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px } #topnav UL { PADDING-LEFT: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 11px; FLOAT: left; = MARGIN: 0px; TEXT-TRANSFORM: uppercase; WIDTH: 758px; COLOR: #fff; = FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; WHITE-SPACE: nowrap; = BACKGROUND-COLOR: #1e2855 } #topnav UL LI { DISPLAY: inline } #topnav UL LI A { BORDER-RIGHT: #aaa 1px solid; PADDING-RIGHT: 0.6em; BORDER-TOP: #1d2959 = 1px solid; PADDING-LEFT: 0.6em; FLOAT: left; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0.2em; = BORDER-LEFT: #fff 1px solid; COLOR: #fff; PADDING-TOP: 0.2em; = BACKGROUND-COLOR: #1e2855; TEXT-DECORATION: none } #topnav UL LI A:hover { COLOR: #fff; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #adadd7 } #topnav A#current { COLOR: #fff; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #06d } #topnav A#misc { COLOR: #fff; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #7af } #topnav A#misc:hover { COLOR: #fff; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #06d } UL#topnavlist { PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN-LEFT: 0px; WHITE-SPACE: nowrap } .mainstory { PADDING-RIGHT: 10px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 10px; FONT: = 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #333333; = PADDING-TOP: 10px; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffffff } .mainstory H1 { MARGIN: 0px 10px 5px 0px; FONT: 600 13px/16px Georgia, "Times New = Roman", Times, serif; COLOR: #1165c4 } .mainspace { PADDING-RIGHT: 10px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 10px; = PADDING-TOP: 10px } .mainstory A { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #333333 } .mainstory A:hover { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #1165c4 } .mainphoto { PADDING-RIGHT: 10px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 10px; FONT: = 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #333333; = PADDING-TOP: 10px; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffffff } .storydetail { PADDING-RIGHT: 5px; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 5px; FONT: = 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #333333; = PADDING-TOP: 5px; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffffff } .storydetail H1 { MARGIN: 10px 0px 0px; FONT: 600 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #920000 } .storydetail H2 { MARGIN: 10px 0px 0px; FONT: 600 18px/16px Georgia, "Times New Roman", = Times, serif; COLOR: #1d2959 } .storydetail H3 { MARGIN: 15px 0px 5px; FONT: 600 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #1d2959 } .storydetailspace { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; MARGIN: = 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px } .storydetail A { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #333333 } .storydetail A:hover { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #1165c4 } .storydetail P { MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px } .gray { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #666666 } .quote { FONT: 600 12px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: = #1d2959 } .quote P { MARGIN: 0px 0px 0px 10px; FONT: 600 12px/18px Verdana, Arial, = Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #1d2959 } .quotedotline { BACKGROUND: url(/images/standard/hc/tile_dot_vertical.gif) #ffffff = repeat-y left 50% } .localheds { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: = 10px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-color: #1165C4 } .text { FONT-SIZE: 11px; COLOR: #333333; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } .related-text { FONT-SIZE: 10px; COLOR: #333333; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } .featured { PADDING-RIGHT: 5px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 5px; = PADDING-TOP: 10px } .substory { PADDING-RIGHT: 10px; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 5px; FONT: = 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #333333; = PADDING-TOP: 5px } .substory H1 { MARGIN: 0px 10px 5px 0px; FONT: 600 12px/16px Georgia, "Times New = Roman", Times, serif; COLOR: #1165c4 } .substory H2 { MARGIN: 0px 10px 2px 0px; FONT: 600 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, = Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #000000 } .substory H3 { MARGIN: 4px 10px 2px 0px; FONT: 600 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, = Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #1165c4 } .substory P { MARGIN: 5px 0px 15px } .subspace { PADDING-RIGHT: 10px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 10px; = PADDING-TOP: 10px } .substory A { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #333333 } .substory A:hover { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #1165c4 } .subhead { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/tile_dot_horizontal.gif) #efedea repeat-x 50% = top; PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #000000; PADDING-TOP: 2px } .townsubhead { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 = 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #000000; = PADDING-TOP: 2px } .wthradvisory { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 = 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #000000; = PADDING-TOP: 2px } .whiteNavBold { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 = 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #000000; = PADDING-TOP: 2px } .t1hdrbar { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/tile_t1_hdr.gif) #efedea repeat-x 50% top; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #000000; PADDING-TOP: 2px } .tileverticaldot { BACKGROUND: url(/images/standard/hc/tile_dot_vertical.gif) #ffffff = repeat-y right 50% } .dottedrule { BACKGROUND: url(/images/standard/hc/tile_dot_horizontal.gif) #ffffff = repeat-x right 50%; WIDTH: 100% } .adbar { PADDING-RIGHT: 7px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/tile_dot_vertical.gif) #ffffff repeat-y left = 50%; PADDING-BOTTOM: 20px; FONT: 600 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, = Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #8c8679; PADDING-TOP: 10px } .adbar2 { PADDING-RIGHT: 5px; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; BACKGROUND: = url(/images/standard/hc/tile_dot_vertical.gif) #ffffff repeat-y left = 50%; PADDING-BOTTOM: 5px; FONT: 600 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #8c8679; PADDING-TOP: 5px } .sidebox { BORDER-RIGHT: #e6e4e1 1px solid; BORDER-TOP: #e6e4e1 1px solid; FONT: = 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; BORDER-LEFT: #e6e4e1 = 1px solid; COLOR: #333333; BORDER-BOTTOM: #e6e4e1 1px solid } .sidebox .hdrbar { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; BACKGROUND: #e6e4e1; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 10px/14px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #333333; PADDING-TOP: 2px } .sidebox .tshdrbar { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; BACKGROUND: #7878b5; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 10px/14px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #333333; PADDING-TOP: 2px } .sidebox .content { PADDING-RIGHT: 5px; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 10px; FONT: = 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #333333; = PADDING-TOP: 5px } .sidebox A { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #1165c4 } .sidebox A:hover { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #990000 } .more { FONT: 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #333333 } .more .hdrbar { PADDING-RIGHT: 2px; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; BACKGROUND: #e6e4e1; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 2px; FONT: 600 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #920000; PADDING-TOP: 2px } .more TD { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; BACKGROUND: #f2f0ed; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT: 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; PADDING-TOP: 0px } .more A { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #1165c4 } .more A:hover { FONT: 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #990000 } .10px { PADDING-RIGHT: 5px; PADDING-LEFT: 5px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 5px; = PADDING-TOP: 5px } .footer { PADDING-RIGHT: 25px; PADDING-LEFT: 25px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 15px; FONT: = 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #000066; = PADDING-TOP: 15px } .footerrule { BACKGROUND: url(/images/standard/hc/tile_dot_horizontal.gif) #ffffff = repeat-x 50% top } .footer A { FONT: 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #1165c4 } .footer A:visited { FONT: 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #666666 } .footer A:hover { FONT: 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #920000 } .copyright { PADDING-RIGHT: 20px; PADDING-LEFT: 35px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 10px; FONT: = 11px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; COLOR: #666666; = PADDING-TOP: 4px } .popupLayer { Z-INDEX: 1; LEFT: 206px; VISIBILITY: hidden; WIDTH: 300px; POSITION: = absolute; TOP: 122px; HEIGHT: 250px } #breakingnews-front { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10pt; COLOR: #990000; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #brief { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: arial, helvetica, = sans-serif } #brief-headline { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 13px; FONT-FAMILY: arial, helvetica, = sans-serif } #ad-rail-label { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 11px; COLOR: #ffffff; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #byline { FONT-SIZE: 11px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #center-rail-label { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 11px; COLOR: #000066; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #columnist-email { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 11px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #columnist-name { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12px; COLOR: #000099; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #columnist-subhead { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #copyright { FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #credit { FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #credit-brief { FONT-SIZE: 12px; FONT-STYLE: italic; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #dateline { FONT-SIZE: 11px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #deckhead { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #flipbook-title { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 16px; COLOR: #ffffff; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #footer { FONT-SIZE: 11px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #footer-credit { FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #headline { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #headline-thc { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #headline-story { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #headline-top-1 { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 15px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #headline-top { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #headlines-more { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #headlines-more-title { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 11px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #localheds { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif; font-color: #1165C4 } #navbar { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10px; COLOR: #ffffff; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, sans-serif } #navigation-text { FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #navigation-title { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #quiz-selected { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12px; COLOR: #006633; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #related-label { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 11px; COLOR: #000066; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #related-mp-label { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 11px; COLOR: #ffffff; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #related-text { FONT-SIZE: 10px; COLOR: #333333; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = Helvetica, sans-serif } #related-mhc-text { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10px; COLOR: #ffffff; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #related-title { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 11px; COLOR: #333333; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #related-rail { PADDING-RIGHT: 3px; PADDING-LEFT: 3px; FLOAT: right; PADDING-BOTTOM: = 3px; MARGIN-LEFT: 4px; WIDTH: 140px; PADDING-TOP: 3px } #related-rail A { =09 } #related-rail A:hover { =09 } #search { FONT-SIZE: 9px; COLOR: #ffffff; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, sans-serif } #spacer { FONT-SIZE: 5px; LINE-HEIGHT: 5pt } #subhead { FONT-SIZE: 12px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #subhead-brief { FONT-SIZE: 12px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #text { FONT-SIZE: 11px; COLOR: #333333; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #text-bold { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #time { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 9px; COLOR: #990000; FONT-FAMILY: = verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #time-stamp { FONT-SIZE: 11px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } #time-stamp-red { FONT-SIZE: 10px; COLOR: #990000; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #town-story-gallery-hed { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12px; COLOR: #1165c4; FONT-FAMILY: = Georgia, Times New Roman, Times, serif } #time-stamp-brief { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 12px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, = helvetica, sans-serif } #weather { FONT-SIZE: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: verdana, arial, helvetica, sans-serif } .comp-fieldcontent { FONT-SIZE: 12px; COLOR: #000000; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Verdana, = sans-serif } .comp-fieldcontent A { FONT-WEIGHT: bold } .comp-searchfields { FONT-SIZE: 12px; COLOR: #000000; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Verdana, = sans-serif } .comp-searchfields A { FONT-WEIGHT: bold } .comp-advsearch { FONT-SIZE: 11px; COLOR: #000000; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Verdana, = sans-serif } .comp-advsearch A { FONT-WEIGHT: bold } .comp-find-options { FONT-SIZE: 10px; COLOR: #000000; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Verdana, = sans-serif } .comp-find-options A { FONT-WEIGHT: bold } .comp-resultsnav { FONT-SIZE: 12px; 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FONT-FAMILY: Arial, sans-serif } .comp-spacer5 { FONT-SIZE: 5px; LINE-HEIGHT: 5px; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, sans-serif } .comp-spacer4 { FONT-SIZE: 4px; LINE-HEIGHT: 4px; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, sans-serif } .comp-spacer3 { FONT-SIZE: 3px; LINE-HEIGHT: 3px; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, sans-serif } .comp-spacer2 { FONT-SIZE: 2px; LINE-HEIGHT: 2px; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, sans-serif } .comp-spacer1 { FONT-SIZE: 1px; LINE-HEIGHT: 1px; FONT-FAMILY: Arial, sans-serif } .label { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; COLOR: black } .required-label { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; COLOR: red } .text { FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif } .spacer10 { FONT-SIZE: 10px; LINE-HEIGHT: 10px } .spacer9 { FONT-SIZE: 9px; LINE-HEIGHT: 9px } .spacer8 { FONT-SIZE: 8px; LINE-HEIGHT: 8px } .spacer7 { FONT-SIZE: 7px; LINE-HEIGHT: 7px } .spacer6 { FONT-SIZE: 6px; LINE-HEIGHT: 6px } .spacer5 { FONT-SIZE: 5px; LINE-HEIGHT: 5px } .spacer4 { FONT-SIZE: 4px; LINE-HEIGHT: 4px } .spacer3 { FONT-SIZE: 3px; LINE-HEIGHT: 3px } .spacer2 { FONT-SIZE: 2px; LINE-HEIGHT: 2px } .spacer1 { FONT-SIZE: 1px; LINE-HEIGHT: 1px } H1.page-title { MARGIN: 10px 0px 0px; FONT: 600 18px/16px Georgia, "Times New Roman", = Times, serif; COLOR: #1d2959 } P.brief { FONT-SIZE: 11px; MARGIN: 10px 3px 3px; COLOR: #333333; LINE-HEIGHT: = normal; FONT-FAMILY: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; TEXT-ALIGN: = left } P.rail-list-item { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; MARGIN-TOP: 4px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; FONT-SIZE: = 11px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; LINE-HEIGHT: normal; PADDING-TOP: 0px; = FONT-FAMILY: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; TEXT-ALIGN: left } .brief-headline { MARGIN: 10px 3px 3px; FONT: 600 11px/16px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #920000 } H3.brief-headline { MARGIN: 10px 3px 3px; FONT: 600 12px/18px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #920000 } H3.brief-headline A { TEXT-DECORATION: none } .brief-date { MARGIN: 10px 3px 3px; FONT: 400 10px/14px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif; COLOR: #990000 } .related-rail { PADDING-RIGHT: 3px; PADDING-LEFT: 3px; FLOAT: right; PADDING-BOTTOM: = 3px; MARGIN-LEFT: 4px; WIDTH: 140px; PADDING-TOP: 3px } #related-rail A { =09 } #related-rail A:hover { =09 } .pg_numbers { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 75%; COLOR: black; FONT-FAMILY: arial, = helvetica, sans-serif; TEXT-DECORATION: underline } .pg_numbers A:link { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 75%; COLOR: black; FONT-FAMILY: arial, = helvetica, sans-serif; TEXT-DECORATION: underline } .pg_numbers A:active { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 75%; COLOR: black; FONT-FAMILY: arial, = helvetica, sans-serif; TEXT-DECORATION: underline } .pg_numbers A:visited { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 75%; COLOR: black; FONT-FAMILY: arial, = helvetica, sans-serif; TEXT-DECORATION: underline } .pg_numbers_on { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 75%; COLOR: black; FONT-FAMILY: arial, = helvetica, sans-serif; TEXT-DECORATION: none } pg_numbers_on A:link { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 75%; COLOR: black; FONT-FAMILY: arial, = helvetica, sans-serif; TEXT-DECORATION: none } .pg_numbers_on A:active { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; 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FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 100%; COLOR: #ffffff; = FONT-FAMILY: arial, helvetica, sans-serif } ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C784BB.67C84F40 Content-Type: application/octet-stream Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.courant.com/central/javascript/mtrx/s_code.js /* SiteCatalyst code version: H.2.=0A= Copyright 1997-2005 Omniture, Inc. 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